Health Care †Operation Management in Canada, England and USA

Table of Contents Introduction Health Care in USA Health Care in the UK Health Care in Canada References Appendix Introduction To give some insight into different approaches of resource usage a comparison of Health Care operation and management in various countries may be useful. It is for this reason this reason this paper will provide a brief comparison of the operation and management of Health Care in the UK, USA and Canada.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Health Care – Operation Management in Canada, England and USA specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This is important due to relative scarcity of resources in both rich and poor countries that has caused inadequacy of available public resources for health care to meet the demand (Brandeau, Sainfort, Pierskalla, 2004). Based on this observation the work of policy makers and health care providers involves determining how to make the best use of the li mited resources available. Despite the scarce resources human health noted significant improvements in the past 50 years. Life expectancy which was 47 years in 1950, rose to 61 years in 1980 and finally to 67 years by 1998 (Brandeau et al., 2004). Much of this improvement was due to improved nutrition, sanitation and medical innovations and their role in low and middle income countries. However, despite the use of varied approaches to Health Care significant differences still exist in various countries. This is evident upon observation of data from these countries. It has been mentioned that though the US spends the most per capita on Health Care, the country also has the largest amount of out of pocket expenditure for Health Care services (Peterson Burton, 2008). This suggests that policy may need to be changed to allow for better and more comprehensive national Health coverage. Due to issues such as disease prevalence and prevalent economic conditions, governments must determine at the highest level what amount of resources they will spend on health care. The government is also expected to design and implement feasible payment schemes for physicians and other health care providers (Brandeau et al., 2004). In addition to the above decisions, governments must also make crucial decisions in relation to the structure of health care systems. The government decides on geographic areas to allocate resources, specific programs to allocate resources and specific health issues to allocate resources (Brandeau et al., 2004). In addition to these economic and structural decisions the government must also handle policy issues that have a major impact on health care. In this paper the discussion presented will discuss health care operation and management in England, Canada and the USA along these lines. Health Care in USA Currently health care is the biggest service based business around the world (Patel Rushefsky, 2008). This is supported by data that indicates that bet ween 1960 and 1997 the percentage of the GDP (Gross Domestic Product) spent on health care by 29 members of the OECD (Organizations for Economic Cooperation and Development ) doubled from 3.9% to 7.6 % (Saito, Wickramasinghe, Fujii, Geisler, 2010).Advertising Looking for report on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Of these countries, the USA was the highest spender in 1997 with a reported 13.6% of the GDP being allocated to health care (Saito et al., 2010). Health care in the USA is funded through a combination of private and public sources (Sultz Young, 2010). Based on this arrangement it is noted that most working Americans under the age of 65 are covered by private insurance which is provided by their respective employers. On the other hand the main financing for public sources comes from Medicate which covers health services for individuals over 65 and Medicaid which caters for the low income segment of t he population (Sultz Young, 2010). However, the influence of various stakeholders such as providers, employers, consumers and political factors continue to make changes to the existing system. This is seen in the varied topics discussed in the national health care reform debates (Sultz Young, 2010). Through such discussions tensions often arise such as those about the role and responsibility of the government as a payer, consumers, relationships between cost and quality and the impact of systems on quality. The two most significant challenges in this plan include dealing with an estimated 47 million uninsured or underinsured and controlling rising health care costs (Sultz Young, 2010). In recent years the increasingly prominent role of technology has led to the continued effort to increase the role of technology in operations. The main reason behind this stems from the fact that this can reduce operation costs, improve cost effectiveness and service delivery (Saito et al., 2010). Surprisingly despite the increased use of technology there has been a continuous marked increase in the cost of health care across the US and is evident on observation of organizational budgets. It has been reported that on average in the US the annual budget for health care institutions increases by between 5% and 15% (Langabeer, 2008). This position would only be possible if expenses could be maintained thus allowing the institution to maintain similar pricing levels for services. There are several reasons that have been suggested to be the cause of this trend within the US health care industry. Because of this escalating costs health care has become an issue of major dissatisfaction among the American public (Patel Rushefsky, 2008). Despite changes that have been made to policy it seems the upward trend has continued as this century progresses (Greenwald, 2010).Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Health Care – Operation Management in Canada, England and USA specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This is especially an issue due to the fact that most of the payments for health care services are based on health insurance. It is reported that in the 1970’s most Americans never paid anything out of pocket for health care (Greenwald, 2010). The current situation is significantly different with public and private insurers continuously seeking ways to reduce coverage for individuals. As a result health care costs are higher and more Americans are likely to cater for these expenses out of pocket ((Naden, 2010). The escalating cost of health care has begun to raise serious concern in many quarters. For example, the American employers complain that the high cost of employee coverage ha strangled international competitiveness (Greenwald, 2010). On the other hand the recipients of health care are indicating a lack of comfort with increasing out of pocket expenditure. Due to this some studie s have indicated that health care costs are the main contributing factor to the majority of bankruptcies in the US. It is reported that programs to provide health care to the poor and elderly consume a portion of the federal budget far in excess of defense expenditure (Greenwald, 2010). Because of this obligation to provide health care to the poor the nation is under serious financial stress forcing it to make cuts on other essential budget areas such as infrastructure maintenance and education to satisfy health care obligations (See Appendix A). At the same time Americans began to show concern for the quality of service that they were receiving (Patel Rushefsky, 2008). This due to data that suggested the quality of service was below what was seen in other similar countries. For example, despite having the highest per capita expenditure on health care, the infant mortality rate was higher than in most other wealthy industrialized countries (Porter Teisberg, 2006). Statistics from 2004 indicate that Singapore has the best performance in prevention of infant mortality and records two infant deaths per 1000 live births. During the same year the US recorded 6.8 infant deaths per 1000 live births. At the same time despite increased life expectancy, it has been reported that by 2003, the US was ranked 16th in life expectancy worldwide (Greenwald, 2010). The economic downturns that were part of the early 21st century are in part responsible for the current situation in the US (Trouth, Wagner Doz, 2010). It is reported that at this time many Americans received health insurance coverage through their employers or the employers of parents and spouses (Greenwald, 2010). Following the major global economic events of the beginning of this century, it was estimated that by 2009, almost 3.7 million Americans had lost their health cover due to unemployment (Greenwald, 2010). This trend caused even greater concern among millions who though employed realized the possibility of losing health insurance if the economy continued its downward trend.Advertising Looking for report on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Due to problems with the health care system many citizens have started to raise questions in relation to the application of social justice within the system. This comes to light due to the fact that it appears the health care system serves the nation unevenly (Greenwald, 2010). This is evident in reports that suggest inequality in provision of health care services is prevalent when racial groups and economic strata are considered (Patel Rushefsky, 2008). Based on this it has been reported that individuals with higher incomes, advanced education, and do not come from minority communities tend to receive more services, have better health status and live longer than their less advantaged counter parts (Byrd Clayton, 2002). One point that is slowly becoming clear is that there are serious knowledge gaps in relation to the health care industry and this has lead to disillusionment among the American public (Sultz Young, 2010). This is due to the fact that the public originally had a pe rception of healthcare as a necessity provided by physicians who adhere to scientific standards in the provision of service. However, the current system contains major variations in therapeutic and diagnostic procedures that do not seem to produce a major variation in the outcome. The solution to the problem lies in major system wide reforms that should bring about increased efficiency in the system. This especially important given that the country spends far more on health care than many of its counter parts (Sultz Young, 2010). It has been noted that despite the massive expenditure on health care the US is currently unable to provide health cover to almost 17% of the population. This comes in addition to the fact that the country ranks poorly in terms of system wide measures such as life expectancy and infant mortality (Sultz Young, 2010). The problems with the health care system continue to cause major problems within the country and even the health care system employees are be ginning to become discouraged. This comes in light of institutional and agency administrators who suggest they care for patients but must reflect over riding budget considerations in every action (Sultz Young, 2010). Such administrators have caused much confusion and demoralization among health care employees. It should be noted that most employees in health care chose a health occupation because of a sense of caring and social justice (Sultz Young, 2010). The realization that the tradeoffs made to pursue these careers and the reality is different has caused significant loss of moral among the staff. Health Care in the UK In the United Kingdom the main body concerned with health care is known as the National Health Service (NHS) (Henderson, 2011). The NHS serves the purpose of providing services in a manner that provides social equality and collective compassion. The NHS was formed under the Health Authorities Act of 1995 that saw the 110 District Health Authorities and 90 Family Health Service Organizations merge to create 100 Unitary Health Authorities (Henderson, 2011). Each of these authorities serves the needs of about 500,000 people. The NHS is the largest employer in the UK with an annual budget of approximately 160 billion pounds and one million employees. The NHS can be traced to the early nineteenth century that saw the establishment of labor unions and other fraternal associations that provided health care to their members (Henderson, 2011). These activities that typically took place through much of Europe saw employers encourage workers to join these mutual aid societies to reduce public demand for charity care. In 1911, the UK was under the leadership of Prime Minister Lloyd George when the British parliament passed the first national Health Insurance Act (Henderson, 2011). This act served the purpose of strengthening the voluntary insurance program and provision of a funding mechanism for indigent care. Although membership to mutual aid societi es was not mandatory most workers joined and coverage included prescription drugs and services of a General Practitioner (GP) (Henderson, 2011). This did not cover specialty care and hospitalization which were catered for under Local government support and charity care. Following the World War II, there was a profound change in the attitude towards health care (Greener, 2009). Before the end of the War, the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill gave instructions to study the health care system and provide recommendations for change. These actions lead to the implementation of the National Health Service Act in 1948 (Moran, 1999). The passing of this Act signified that the entire population was covered under a single plan that provided a comprehensive package of benefits. These benefits would be provided from general tax revenues and were provided free to patients at the point of use (Moran, 1999). The emergence of a single payer concept and limited supervision of service providers kept administrative cost of the system low, despite the fact that the NHS was underfunded and dominated by the medical community (Henderson, 2011). These budgetary constraints coupled with the effects of slow growth during some years lead to politicization of health care delivery and several crises emerged. This trend saw almost one crisis emerge every three years between government policy makers and the medical practitioners (Henderson, 2011). It should be noted that the NHS inherited a resource distribution system that favored metropolitan areas in and around London. This caused some difficulty given that one of the goals of this new system was to address and eliminate existing inequality (Henderson, 2011). This saw targets to increase service provision in underserved regions and reduce expansion in over served regions of the Kingdom. However, even with these changes there remains disparity in the per capita hospital spending with difference of as much as 40% across regions. Under this system of care every citizen is registered with a GP and is able to access primary and preventive care in this setting. It is reported that there are about 35,000 GP’s in almost 9,000 practices responsible for almost 90% of all patients (Henderson, 2011). This GP thus serves as the family doctor for the patient and is also a gatekeeper for specialists or consultants within the system. Any patient in the system that requires extensive testing or specialized treatment is directly referred to a specialist or admitted directly to hospital (Henderson, 2011). Based on this system, it is procedure that anyone requiring an elective procedure is place d on a waiting list. This includes procedures such as cataract surgery, hip replacement, coronary artery bypass and breast reconstruction following mastectomy (Henderson, 2011). This position suggests that any non life threatening procedure is allowed to wait for a while. Statistics from 2007 indicated that there were almost 750,000 peo ple on waiting lists for hospital admission, a figure that translates to one percent of the population. The target for 2008 in relation to hospital admission was 18 weeks and currently less than 50% manage to gain admission before completion of the duration. It is clear to see that because of the waiting lists those who can afford private supplementary health insurance have purchased it. For this reason it has been reported that about 12% of the population have health insurance especially in the high income earning bracket and individuals in managerial positions (Henderson, 2011). Of the portion with private coverage, two thirds receive it through risk rated policies that are given by employers. The premiums for such coverage must be covered by pretax income and any benefit from the coverage is subject to an income tax and a 5% premium tax (Henderson, 2011). The patients with private care still to a great extent use NHS for emergency and chronic care. The private coverage is mainly to cater for quality of life issues such as hip replacement, gall bladder disease and hernia repair among others. Only about 20% of non emergency surgery is paid for using private coverage and thus it appears this coverage is a safety valve for the NHS. The private system has been criticized for taking the pressure off the NHS thus slowing the pace of change within the institution. In addition to that, it has been suggested that it facilitates a two tiered system that fosters inequality (Henderson, 2011). This may be true in part given that the average net earnings of self employed practitioners was 161,624 pounds while that of hospital based practitioners was from 85,000 to 120,000 (Henderson, 2011). This difference is salary tends to support the claim as it appears privately employed physicians can earn significantly more than their counterparts in government employ. It is reported that the NHS inherited almost 3,000 hospitals at inception. The reorganization within the system tod ay has seen far fewer hospitals in five major categories namely, specialist hospitals, major acute hospitals, elective centers, local hospitals and poly clinics (Henderson, 2011). The number of hospital beds also declined significantly from 480,000 in 1948 to 165,000 in 2008. The most recent figures on bed occupancy stand at 84.5% for all hospitals. The system is to some degree paternalistic and is mainly concerned with resource allocation. It has been suggested that the patients in the UK are poorly informed when compared with others in the developed world (Henderson, 2011). For this reason, the physician is the sole determinant on the needs of a patient and as such it is possible that their decisions are governed to a greater degree by rationing than clinical decision (Henderson, 2011). In 1993 the system underwent some degree of reform that saw the inclusion of choice and competition in the system. Unfortunately competition failed to create the desired improvements due to weak in centives (Harrison McDonald, 2008). As a result to become a provider of health services, a health organization was required to become a NHS trust. These trusts became independent organizations competing for patients while many GP’s became fund holders with their individual budgets (Henderson, 2011). As a result of these changes, by 1995, all health care was being provided through NHS trusts. In addition to that GP’s who did not want to become fund holders had budgets centrally controlled by the NHS. Based on this change patients began to receive better treatment from fund holders bringing an end to the complaints from the patient population. This also led to the emergence of a two tiered system (Henderson, 2011). This disturbing trend came to an end with a change of government that pledged to end the internal market arising within the NHS. The GP fund holding was changed and some 30,000 GP’s were placed in one of 500 primary care trusts (PCT). Each PCT has a bu dget and provides primary care, community health services and all other medical services for a population of between 50,000 and 250,000 (Henderson, 2011). These reforms shifted the emphasis from a market based model to a government run system based on collaboration and cooperation. In addition to those changes the new NHS unveiled a 10 year plan that promised more hospitals, physicians, cleaner facilities among other changes. This was promised while the NHS continued to be underfunded and thus suggested an increase the budget. This increase was expected to take place between March 2000 and end of 2005 and would see an average annual increase in NHS spending by 6.3% (Henderson, 2011). Despite the numerous changes to the health care system it has been noted that inequalities still exist as is evident based on life expectancy between managerial and unskilled groups (Henderson, 2011). The need to reform continues to receive strong opposition as the majorities believe in equal access in preference to quality care (Greener, 2009). Currently the new government is in the process of making changes that will improve the equity of the system (Watson Ovseiko, 2005). Among the changes will be a freedom to select the service provider to allow for a more patient centered approach to treatment. Health Care in Canada The Canadian health care system is based upon attempts at using the Aristotelian model of finding the golden mean. This is because it is believed that this principle is useful when thinking about health care as both extremes in funding health care are dangerous (Fierlbeck, 2011). It has been observed that the golden mean is based on desirable qualities of the given health care system. Such qualities include cost containment, efficiency, equity, universality, comprehensiveness and responsiveness (Fierlbeck, 2011). The main objective of the Canadian health care system is to provide a national mechanism that satisfies such requirements (OECD, 2001). The current heal th Canadian health care system can be traced to 1947 and the efforts of Tommy Douglas through the introduction of a publicly funded university hospital in Saskatchewan (Fierlbeck, 2011). However, others mention that it was not until 1972 that the Canadian health care system was fully established. These points are both true to some extent due to the fact that Canada does not have one health care system but has 13 due to the role of each territory on health care in its jurisdiction (Fierlbeck, 2011). Based on this therefore it is observed that some provinces such as Ontario had publicly financed health care in place from the early twentieth century. However, it was the Saskatchewan universal hospital insurance plan that acted as a model for the subsequent developments in various states. Following these actions in Saskatchewan, by 1957 Ottawa agree to cost share the program with any province that would agree to conform to four basic principles namely, universality, comprehensiveness, p ortability and public administration (Fierlbeck, 2011). Based on this the 1966 Medical Care Act formed the basis for the current Canadian Health Act (CHA) of 1984 (Naylor, 1992). Based on the provisions of this legislation all provinces were involved in both cost sharing programs with the federal government. The voluntary coordination of health services in all provinces by the federal government is what generally constitutes the Canadian Health Care system (Fierlbeck, 2011). The Canadian Health care system is fragmented system controlled by various federal governments but coordinated by the state with consent of the provinces. Based on this arrangement the larger part of hospital and physician care is covered through public insurance in Canada (Fierlbeck, 2011). However, many medical goods and services are not included in this coverage. The health services are generally catered for by private practitioners who are either reimbursed by public or private insurance and in some cases ou t of pocket payments (Fierlbeck, 2011). The majority of hospitals in Canada are private not for profit institutions that are funded through a global budget from provincial departments of health. While all Canadians are free to select their GP (Or switch GP’s as they please), the territories use a gatekeeper system under which patients have access to specialists only through referral by a family physician (Fierlbeck, 2011). Both the GP’s and specialists are reimbursed by the provinces based on guidelines and fee schedules determined in discussions with the professional associations. Services that are publicly funded include GP services, hospital care and diagnostic services performed in hospitals. Most of the funds used to cater for these expenses come from the provinces respective tax bases, where less than 20% of health care expenditure is transferred to provinces from Ottawa (Fierlbeck, 2011). In Canada two provinces namely, British Columbia and Quebec levy health ca re premiums which are considered taxes as they go directly into general revenue as opposed to health care programs. Access to all publicly insured services is granted to all regardless of whether the premiums have been paid or not. In four states, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec and Newfoundland, the authorities levy payroll based taxes those these are not like true payroll based schemes where only those who pay can benefit (Fierlbeck, 2011). Rather these funds are earmarked for payment and go directly into general revenues to be distributed among the general public. It should be noted that long term care and services such as pharmaceuticals are not covered under the CHA (Fierlbeck, 2011). However, several provinces have programs that cater for these through a varied approach to finance (Baylis, 2011). This is because while CHA does not cover pharmaceuticals, most Canadians have insurance for pharmaceuticals (Fierlbeck, 2011). This is seen in territories such as Quebec which require emplo yees to enroll for private insurance for drug coverage. Others territories such as Saskatchewan, Manitoba and British Columbia have income based pharmacare programs. Other states also include drug coverage for seniors or catastrophic drug requirements. However, the majority of Canadians simply have voluntary private drug coverage (Fierlbeck, 2011). This health care system is influenced by pressures for change and attempts to identify channels to implements change as with any other health care system (Caulfield Tigerstrom, 2002). The primary difference is that these decisions rely on a largely on legal institutions (Constitution and CHA), economic pressures, politics, versus the voters (Fierlbeck, 2011). These opposing forces often have very different demands and the key to maintaining the balance in the system have been the golden mean principle that guided the formation of the CHA (Caulfield Tigerstrom, 2002). References Baylis, F. (2011). Health Care Ethics in Canada. Printed in the USA: Nelson Education Ltd. Brandeau, M., Sainfort, F., Pierskalla, W. (2004). Operations Research and Health Care: A Handbook of Methods and Applications. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Byrd, M., Clayton, L. (2002). An American Health Dilemma: Race, Medicine, and Health care in the United States. London: Routledge. Caulfield, T., Tigerstrom, B. (2002). Health Care Reform the Law in Canada: Meeting the Challenge. Edmonton: The University of Alberta Press. Fierlbeck, K. (2011). Health Care in Canada: A Citizens Guide to Policy and Politics. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Greener, I. (2009). Health care in the UK: Understanding Continuity and Change. Bristol: The Policy Press. Greenwald, H. (2010). Health Care in the United States: Organization, Management, and Policy. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. Harrison, S., McDonald, R. (2008). The Politics of Healthcare in Britain: London: SAGE publications Ltd. Henderson, J. (2011). Health Economics and Policy. Mason , OH: South-Western. Langabeer, J. R. (2008). Health Care Operations Management: A Quantitative Approach to Business and Logistics. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Moran, M. (1999). Governing the Health care state: A Comparative Study of the United Kingdom, the United States and Germany. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Naden, C. (2010). Health Care; A Right or a Privilege? White Plains, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation. Naylor, C. (1992). Canadian Health care and the State: A Century of Evolution. Printed in Canada: McGill-Queen’s University Press. Organization for economic Development and Cooperation (OECD) (2001). Canada. France: OECD Publishing. Patel, K., Rushefsky, M. (2008). Health Care in America: Separate and Unequal. New York: M. E. Sharpe, Inc. Peterson, C., Burton, R. (2008). The US Health Care Spending: Comparison with other OECD Countries. New York: Nova Science Publishers Inc. Porter, M., Teisberg, O. (2006). Redefining Health Care: Cre ating Value based Competition n Results. Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing. Saito, M., Wickramasinghe, N., Fujii, M., Geisler, E. (2010). Redesigning Innovative Healthcare Operation and the Role of Knowledge Management. Hershey, PA: Medical Information Science Reference. Sultz, H., Young, K. (2010). Health Care USA: Understanding its Organization and Delivery. Boston, MA: Jones Bartlett Learning. Trouth. C., Wagner, M., Doz, P. (2010). Universal Health care Problems in the United States of America. Victoria, Canada: Friesen Press. Watson, J., Ovseiko, P. (2005). Health Care Systems: Major Themes in Health and Social Welfare. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Appendix Appendix A: Growth in Health care costs (Greenwald, 2010). Appendix B: Comparison of Healthcare Expenditure among OECD Countries (Peterson Burton, 2008). Appendix C: Health Care Expenditure in OECD Countries (Peterson Burton, 2008). This report on Health Care – Operation Management in Canada, England and USA was written and submitted by user Lainey S. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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Waste of natural resources and creation of all types of pollution are generally areas that urgently need to be considered. Waste management is one of the prior conditions for the sustainability of any country (Schneider.D.R Bogdan.Z; 2011). The inappropriate link between consumers demand for goods (and the consequence of generated waste) and the ability of the local authorities to collect and handle this waste (Cardinali.R; 2001), has resulted into a heavily disturbed environment. Solid waste can be considered as the universal pollutant. It has always contributed to the human condition as long as man has been a biological species. Most of the consequences resulted from solid waste are similar to those of air and water pollution. They are aesthetically displeasing, they can pose threat to human health and they represent a loss of useful resources. Only recently with the concept of sustainability and the rising awareness on the consequences of ineffective waste management, that the concern of local authorities on environmental health demands the effective management and disposal of waste, in order to reduce and where possible eradicate its capacity to cause harm to humans, plants, animals and natural resources (Ayotamuno.M.J Gobo.E.A; 2004). Aim The aim of this assignment is to analyze the extent to which municipal solid waste is sustainably managed in Mauritius. 1.2 Objectives The objectives behind this study are: to assess the impacts of wastes and waste disposal methods on humans and the environment, to assess how far solid waste management is leading to Mauritius Green Island to assess the health and safety aspect in solid waste management Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.0 Introduction Waste management which has always formed part of the human society consists of waste prevention, reuse, recycling of materials, composting, energy recovery and final disposal. The mushrooming of the worlds population, increasing industrialization, improving quality of life, and developments in technology have all resulted in an increase in both the quantity and the different types of solid wastes generated by industries, households and other activities (UNEP,1991). The problems of dealing with large amount of waste materials arise specially in developing countries where these changes have not been met by developments in waste-management technologies (Wilson Balkau, 1990). Domestic solid waste has become a health and environmental hazard in many developing countries as a result of careless handling and a failure to make arrangement for appropriate solid waste collection techniques. It is a common belief that improving solid waste management (SWM) implies making waste collection and d isposal systems more efficient, raising residents awareness and enforcing SWM laws and regulations (Obeng.P.A; Donkor.A.E Mensah.A; 2009). 2.1 Definition of solid waste Solid waste can be defined as a different types of solid materials and also some liquids in cans, that are disposed as being spent, useless, worthless or in excess (Nemerow.L.N, Gardy.A.J.F, Sullivan.P and Salvato.A.J; 2009) 2.2 Classification of solid waste The classification of solid waste is based on the content, moisture and heating value. An example of classification is as follows: Garbage refers to the biodegradable solid waste constituents, obtained during the preparation or storage of food (meat, fruits, and vegetables). These wastes water content of about 70% and a heating value of around 6ooooookg (Rao,1991) Rubbish refers to non-putrecible solid waste constituents either combustible (paper, wood, scrap) or non-combustible (metals, glasses ceramics). These wastes contain about 25% of water and the heating value of the waste is around 15000000kg (Rao, 1991). Solid waste can be further classified based on the source of the solid waste: Domestic waste Commercial waste Institutional waste Industrial waste Agricultural waste 2.3 Sources and Types of solid wastes Table 1.0 below shows different source types of solid wastes produced Sources Typical locations where wastes are generated Types of solid wastes Municipal wastes (domestic, commercial, institutional) Residential, open areas (street) Food wastes, rubbish, paper Industrial wastes Factory wastes Organic wastes from food processing, metallic sludges Agricultural wastes Forestry wastes Crop residues, animal manure Mining Quarrying wastes Mining minerals Rock, topsoil Energy generation wastes Thermal power plants Fly ash Source: Peavy, Rowe Tchobanoglous (1985) Since, domestic waste, commercial waste and institutional wastes are collected and transported by similar authorities, that is the municipal council or district council, they are usually group together and called Municipal Solid Waste (MSW). 2.4 What is solid waste management? Solid waste management is considered as a serious matter in different parts of the world. The unexpected increase of waste production emphasizes on the necessity of a right balance in the various technological facilities for the collection and treatment of waste, taking into consideration the existing regulations, economic constraints, environmental issues and also public acceptance, (Caputo.C.A, Pelagagge.M.P and Scacchia.F; 2002). Solid waste management can be defined as practical measures that ensure the proper functioning of collection, transport, processing, treatment and disposal of solid waste. The global concern about environmental health suggests that wastes be managed in an efficient manner and disposed of in an acceptable way, in order to reduce and or where possible get rid of its potential dangers that are posed to human beings and the environment as a whole, (Robinson 1986). 2.5 The need for municipal solid waste management The need for municipal solid waste management arose since the effects of solid waste in the environment outweigh the benefits. The following illustrate some examples of improper solid waste management. Public Health Problems and Diseases The uncontrolled fermentation of garbage provides the food source and habitat for bacterial growth. Furthermore, there is proliferation of insects, flies, mosquitoes and some birds which act as passive vectors in the transmission of some infectious diseases. Aesthetic consideration Dumping of solid waste everywhere and failure to collect those wastes in a proper way, not only provide rooms for the growth and spreading of mosquitoes and insects, but also give rise to strong odour and lead to an unsightly and unpleasant environment. Air Pollution Uncontrolled and incomplete combustion of solid waste materials can result in a number of unwanted air pollutants including particulate matter, smoke, sulphur dioxide and other noxious gases from the burning of plastic materials. Thus by analyzing the few health hazards and environmental impacts of solid waste, we conclude that a safe and environmentally and economically sustainable solid waste management plan is indispensable. 2.6 General solid waste management in Mauritius In Mauritius, it is the local authorities which consist of five municipalities for urban areas and four district councils for rural regions, private sectors such as Securiclean, Maxiclean, Atics among others, and the Ministry of Local Government which carry out waste collection. The Chief Health Inspector in all the five municipalities controls the operation of collection, disposal and street cleaning. The officer is also responsible for transport allocation and operation, including control of drivers, except in Port-Louis where transport and drivers are on the establishment of the City Engineers department. There exist a similar structure in the three district councils concerning the management and operational transport. However since the labour force is small, employees from the government are supplemented to perform the work. The frequency of collection regarding domestic refuse varies from twice a week to once monthly between local authorities. The collection of commercial or trade waste in urban and rural areas is treated as a main concern and a daily service is provided. With respect to storage, some municipalities have provided plastic bins and plastic bags to the residents. This has facilitated the collection process. All waste collected by the district and municipal council and the private contractors are disposed of directly to a dump site or to a transfer station where the waste is processed and compacted before dumping. (Source: http://localgovernment.gov.mu) Chapter 3 3.0 Profile of the study area http://www.gov.mu/portal/goc/mlge/images/map.gif Figure 2.0 Municipalities District Councils of Mauritius Source: (http://www.gov.mu/portal/site/mlge/menuitem.f9c1c444c628df3cb3347524e2b521ca/) Key: Municipality of Port-Louis Municipality of Beau-Bassin/ Rose-Hill Municipality of Quatre-Bornes Municipality of Vacoas/ Phoenix Municipality of Curepipe Pamplemousses/ Riviere du Rempart District Council Moka/ Flacq District Council Grand Port / Savanne District Council Black River District Council Chapter 4 4.0 Findings and Discussions 4.1 Findings On our visit to the municipality of Beau Bassin / Rose- Hill, we found that municipal solid wastes are not sustainably managed. As we have been told by a senior Health Inspector Mr. Beefnah Kishan, the true reason why the proper management is not being done is because there is a lack of willingness from the local authorities, and that the municipality alone cannot take this initiative since it is a very costly project. We found that the municipality is only trying to sensitize the people about living in a clean environment. We have been told that even with the sensitization campaign, the local inhabitants are not abiding by the basic elementary principles which according to the authorities, is a demarcation line for sustainable solid waste management. For instance, during our visit we noticed that though people are aware that there are two separate bins available (at plaza) for waste disposal, that is, one for plastic wastes only and the other for any other kind of wastes, they throw their waste carelessly. We have been told that as far as the municipality is concerned, their duties and responsibilities are being respected they are maintaining their efforts to preserve the environment. Furthermore, from the findings we got at the municipality of Vacoas/ Phoenix, we found that the idea of managing municipal solid wastes in Mauritius has not yet come into existence. As we were told by the Chief Health Inspector Mr. Lobin, there is a lack of mindset on behalf of the local authorities. The authorities take only the cost factor into consideration, they missed the point that investing in this project will be a long term benefits. During our meeting with the Chief Health Inspector, he also pointed out clearly that collection and disposal of wastes is the only responsibilities of the municipalities, and managing wastes is the responsibility of the local authorities. Moreover, we also had a visit at the Moka/ Flacq District Council, where again we found that the idea of sustainable solid waste management is only an idea. We were told by two assistant Health Inspectors, Mr. Aumeer Imteaz and Mr. Chitbauhaal Foorkhan, that the District Council at present is only working towards keeping the environment clean, by maintaining their responsibilities and duties, and by organizing different awareness campaign programmes. But concerning the sustainable management of solid waste, nothing yet has been done. According to these persons, in order to realize the project of managing solid waste sustainably, first and foremost the local authorities should have the willingness and afterwards others will follow. Finally, during our visit to the Ministry of Local Government, we have met with the Senior Project Officer Mr. Dookee Ganesh, who confirmed that municipal solid wastes are not sustainably managed in Mauritius. According to the project officer, managing municipal solid waste sustainably is a big and costly project and it will take time. He however pointed out that to some extent wastes are being managed though not sustainably, in the sense that some wastes (plastics) are being recycled, some other types of wastes are being incinerated and the rests are sent to the landfill site at Mare Chicose. 4.2 Overall Discussions Efficient waste management is one of the best ways for sustainable development of any country, (Schneider.D.R Bogdan, 2011). Sustainable and effective planning on waste management is lacking, although many initiatives are in progress, notably in the area of legislation (Mohee.R, 2002). We do agree that managing municipal solid wastes sustainably is a big and costly project, but the government needs to realize that managing municipal solid waste sustainably is an investment and not a cost. In the long run, the results will reflect the investment; the benefits will outweigh the cost. From the findings we obtained, we have understood that wastes that are not being recycled are either incinerated or sent to the landfill site. Some types of wastes such as metals, glass, paper and plastics are not to be burnt since they can be recycled, but unfortunately not 100% of the recyclable wastes that are sent to the recycling industries. Since organic wastes consist of large amount of water, therefore the quantity of energy that is needed to dehumidify these might be more than what the incinerator produces. Furthermore, incinerators release huge amount of smoke. Similarly, landfill is not an option. Like we have at Mare Chicose, it seems to be worse than incinerators. It does not only result in visual impact, but it is also very polluting. Critically speaking, municipal solid wastes are not sustainably managed in Mauritius. The ways or techniques used in Mauritius to manage municipal solid wastes seem to be an irony, since the reason behind managing wastes is first and forem ost to protect the environment and human beings by preventing pollution, but the reality is that the means that are being used to manage these wastes are sources of pollution. One of the major issues in Mauritius is ignorance. People are not enough aware of the fragility of the environment. If fines are not imposed, people will not change their habits of throwing wastes everywhere. It must be realized that it may be the responsibility of the authorities to manage wastes, but the wastes producers are the inhabitants. Large amount of solid wastes are generated from households, therefore people should be made aware that wastes as such do not exist, it is only when not in use that the resources become wastes. Furthermore, tourists produce huge amounts of wastes, mainly during the peak tourism period, making it difficult for the local authorities to manage waste with their limited capacities, (Mohee.R, 2002). We believe that managing municipal solid wastes sustainably cannot be done at one go. However, there exist some effective techniques that can be adopted to ensure that solid waste is properly managed and thus making a way for the sustainable management. For instance, waste management hierarchy which includes the effective techniques can be adopted by the local people. The waste management hierarchy is a widely accepted order of waste management options. The European Council in its Waste Directive of 1991 sets the hierarchy of waste management options as follows: Waste prevention Recovery Safe disposal Chapter 5 5.0 Recommendation Conclusion 5.1 Recommendation Mauritius is a small island and due to land scarcity, it can neither have many landfills nor have all its wastes recycled. But it should be noted that incineration is not the ideal solution to this problem; it will rather encourage more wastes to be produced. First of all the Government should try to implement a zero waste policy. The use of plastics bags should be forbidden. Sorting of wastes should be encouraged to be done at home or onsite itself (plastics/organic/metals). Electronic gadgets should be made in such a way that they can be processed for parts that can be recycled and the toxic elements disposed of in the proper way and not burnt. If some of the steps are implemented, there will be nothing to get incinerated or a minimum amount of wastes would be burnt. Therefore, the followings are some of the proposed ideas towards sustainable municipal solid waste management: Policy planning and Strategy Solid waste management plans First of all there should be solid waste management plans in place. Waste management plans have essential roles to play towards sustainable waste management. Their primary purpose is to provide an outline of sources of wastes and treatment options. Waste management plans, national as well as local/regional are essential tools helping in the implementation and achievement of policies and targets that have been set up. Furthermore, the plans give an outline of the amount of wastes to be managed. Also, they contribute to ensuring that the capacity and the way of collection and treatment systems are coherent with the waste to be managed. The plans also identify areas in which technological measures should be taken to get rid of or minimize certain types of waste. Moreover, waste management plans make way for a statement of financial requirements for the operation of collection schemes and treatment of waste among others. On this basis, the needs for further investments in waste treatment plans may be determined. As a solution to many waste management problems, the involvement of several participants/authorities are required and coherent planning helps to avoid unnecessary duplication of effort and thus benefits all participants, (EU Commission, Environment, 2003). Zero-waste policy The aim of this policy should be geared towards a sustainable economy. The purpose is to minimize consumption to a reasonable extent by using design-for-environment in every product and their packaging, and to make them all recyclable. The determining factors to achieve Zero Waste are the products designs and industrial processes, that is, their components should be made in such a way that they can be easily disassemble, repaired and/or converted into reusable materials. Zero Waste implies merging communities, businesses and industries such that ones waste becomes anothers feedstock, which results in preventing pollution at its source. By implementing the Zero waste policy, the discharge of highly toxic materials to land, water, or air that threaten the planetary, human, animal or plant health can be eliminated, (Recycling Council of British Columbia, 2009). Management of Municipal Solid Waste Waste Minimization Waste minimization is considered as a waste management approach that emphasizes on decreasing the amount and toxicity of hazardous waste that is generated. It is believed that waste minimization methods that focus on avoiding waste from ever being created, (source reduction) and recycling is encouraged. There are three general methods of waste minimization: source reduction, recycling, and treatment, (Scott.W.D, 2005). Waste minimization can be achieved by reusing materials. In doing so, materials which were bound to become waste can be used again and there will be no need for recycling, combustion for energy purpose and disposal of waste materials to landfill. This can lead to a reduction in waste management costs. However this can effectively be done by planning, fabricating, buying, or making use of materials in a way that reduce the amount of trash created, less waste is created and fewer natural resources are used. Waste Sorting Waste sorting should be done at home and this can be achieved by the help of the local authorities, in the sense that, the three bins system should be implemented and there should be continual training and education awareness programmes. People should be taught how to use this system effectively and the reason behind using it. The three bins can either be coloured differently or labelled in order to facilitate the users to dispose their wastes in the corrective way. Waste sorting helps in achieving a sustainable environment, in the sense that recyclable wastes will be disposed separately and thus can be sent directly to the recycling industries and other wastes can be processed accordingly. This will save time and cost of labour also. Composting Composting is the decomposition of organic matter by microorganism in warm, moist, aerobic and anaerobic environment. There are different ways to do composting. It varies from simple and cheap backyard or onsite composting methods to more costly and sophisticated methods such as in-vessel composting. For materials such as food scraps and other materials which are degradable, adoption of proven technologies for processing such waste as backyard composting can be used; as this can reduce the amount of waste destined for disposal. Inhabitants can then sell the compost to nearby farmers and other users. Government should favour and stimulate the development and acceptance of appropriate technologies for the conversion of municipal solid waste to compost and promote markets for its use as a soil amendment. It can also be noted that inhabitant can use the soil conditioner obtained from composting to grow their own vegetables and crops. This is a good path towards sustainability and it dema nds patience and cooperation. However this project may take time to develop in Mauritius because there is lack of willingness on the part of communities, local authorities and other parties such as the informal sector and the formal waste collector. Best practices Enforcing Law To achieve a sustainable waste management, the Government must take actions against those who by-pass the law by throwing wastes haphazardly. The pay- as -you -throw program should be put in place and the local authorities must ensure that the legal duty to abide by this particular program is imposed on all people in the country, including tourists. The government should enforce a law for the purchase of recycled products such as paper, re-refined oil, and retread tires by recycling companies all over the island. Companies who are willing to do recycling, should be subsidised to provide a special bin for recyclable materials and also for the collection purpose. This will encourage people not to throw those materials which can be transformed in valued resources once more, hence reducing the waste which was bound to be incinerated or landfilled. Education and awareness There should be a continuous awareness programme in place, so that every person gets well accustomed to the new techniques of municipal solid waste management. There should also be public education so that people are not only made aware of the new techniques, but also that they can understand the reasons behind managing municipal solid wastes sustainably. The public should know and understand the importance of sustainable development. For example, when doing shopping, people should always look for the labels of a product to ascertain its recyclability. This will encourage the production of recycled-content products. People, can practice bulk buying and make greater use of plastics containers for refillable products. People should be made aware of the benefits of buying products refillable in containers and also bulk buying. They can save money and also reduce packaging waste in so doing. They should avoid products of unnecessary packaging when choosing between two similar one. Close neighbours or family should be willing to share recent newspapers or magazines. This can maximise the use of such items and lead to a reduction in the generation of wastes. Even for old tools, equipments or other materials which can still be used, willingness on the part of people should exist to ask friends, relatives, neighbours or community groups if they can use them before it is discarded. Inhabitants of communities should be willing organise a special day for donating or reselling goods to organisation in need such as clothes, furnitures and reading materials. Local or regional programs to collect compostable material should be set up with the help of public officials or community leaders. If people cannot do composting at their places, they must collect all the compostable materials and give it to their neighbours who are involved in gardening or crop growing. These values should be inculcated at school itself. Environmental education should be introduces at schools, where students will learn how to do source reduction, reuse or recycling and composting. 5.2 Conclusion The severity of waste management problems in Mauritius has long been recognized. The impact of municipal solid waste on the environment is greatly determined by the way this waste is handled, (Ludwig et al., 2004). The lack of suitable disposal sites has affected the environment. New technologies have been developed in order to help in the treatment of waste and in safe disposal. Other technologies will be set up for the recovery of material and energy in the near future. There are key issues that need to be considered in sustainable management, such as the environmental performance of technologies and the economic costs. After subsequent analysis of the whole solid waste management system in Mauritius, it has been found that the actual system is not enough to manage municipal solid waste effectively. To manage municipal solid waste sustainably in Mauritius, the existing system should be reviewed and problems should be tackled preferably at source, and if not possible, then appropriate mechanisms for safe disposal should be installed in an effort to combat the increasing volume of untreated solid waste dumped into canals and drains or any other open dumping sites, (United States Agency for International Development, 2005).

Nikki Giovani Comparing Poems Essay

Nikki Giovanni uses good choice of words and figurative language to put the reader in a vivid world. She uses vivid verbs, personification, and other elements to really give the right picture in your mind. Her method works because the readers get hooked onto the poem and want to read it. One of my favorite poems is â€Å"poetry.† Poetry is a poem about poets using poetry to express themselves and not to impress anybody. She uses metaphors to show what poetry is, she says â€Å"A poem is pure energy.† These types of metaphors help the reader picture what the poems trying to say. She also uses personification to also have a better understanding. Another one of Nikki Giovanni’s poems is â€Å"women.† I think that this poem talks about a woman who has been rejected. She uses metaphors to express how she feels. She says â€Å"I am glass† to say she is transparent. Nikki Giovanni uses metaphors and simile in both poems. She uses these so that readers will understand the poem better. This is a good way to get readers interested. She also uses other elements like repetition to emphasize it like when she repeats â€Å"I am glass I am glass.† In the poems â€Å"women† and â€Å"poetry† by Nikki Giovanni she uses different elements to express what she is trying to express. We talked about two metaphor and simile. The way she uses the different elements really goes along with the poems. It goes really well because it gives the readers pictures of what the poet is trying to express. This is why Nikki Giovanni’s method works good in poetry.

What to Expect From Ivy League College Application Essay Samples?

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